![]() In humans, PEs display biological, pharmacological, and medicinal properties, such as anti-diabetic, antioxidant, anti-microbial, hepatoprotective, hypoglycemic, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, antidepressant, and tissue differentiation activity. PEs also induce protein biosynthesis and modulate carbohydrate and lipid synthesis. ![]() PEs promote enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant defense systems, which decrease reactive oxygen species in the form of superoxide radicals and hydroxyl radicals and reduce malondialdehyde content. In plants, PEs play a potent role in enhancing tolerance against insects and nematodes via their allelochemical activity, which increases plant biological and metabolic responses. These compounds contribute to mitigating biotic and abiotic stresses. ![]() ![]() PEs exhibit versatile biological roles in plants, invertebrates, and mammals. 20-hydroxyecdysone is the most common PE. PEs are found in algae, fungi, ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms more than 500 different PEs are found in over 100 terrestrial plants. Plants produce PEs via the mevalonate pathway with the help of the precursor acetyl-CoA. The carbon skeleton of ecdysteroid is known as cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene and has a β-sidechain on C-17. PEs have a four-ringed skeleton composed of 27, 28, 29, or 30 carbon atoms (derived from plant sterols). Phytoecdysteroids (PEs) are naturally occurring polyhydroxylated compounds with a structure similar to that of insect molting hormone and the plant hormone brassinosteroids. ![]()
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